RevistaTOMO,SãoCristóvão,v.44,e22700,2025DOI:10.21669/tomo.v44.22700SpecialIssue-CoastalSqueeze:BeachesunderSocio-EconomicandEcologicalPressureE-ISSN:2318-9010/ISSN:1517-4549SpecialIssueThemakingofthecoastalconcessionapparatus:asociohistoricalstudyofPampelonneBeach(France,1920s–1970s)IsabelleBruno*1GrégorySalle**2AbstractThisarticleexaminesthesociohistoricalemergenceoftheconcessionapparatusatPampelonneBeach(1920s–1970s),alandmarksiteontheFrenchRiviera.Drawingonarchivalresearch,weanalyzehowapreviouslyunregulatedshorelinewasgraduallytransformedintoa(attimescontested)commercializedrecreationalspacethroughnegotiationsamongstateauthorities,localactors,andprivatemanagers.Whilenotconferringprivatepropertyrights,state-issuedconcessionsauthorizecommercialoperatorstotempo-rarilyexploitbeachsegmentsbyinstallingphysicalamenitiesonthesand.Operatingatthenexusofpublicownershipandprivateexploitation,theconcessionapparatuscreatedaquasi-privatization,segmentingbeachgoersbetweenaffluentclienteleandordinaryusers,whilegeneratingsubstantialprofitsforprivateoperatorsandpublicauthorities.Illustratingthespatialandsocialconsequencesofcoastalcapitalism,thecaseofPampelonnehighlightshowrecreationalnatureisconstructedasacommodity,deepeningsocialandecologicalinequalitiesontheMediterraneanshoreline.Keywords:Beach;Concession;Environment;Inequality;Shoreline.*UniversitédeLille.Centred’étudesetderecherchesadministratives,politiquesetsociales(CERAPS).Lille.France.E-mail:isabelle.bruno@univ-lille.frOrcid:https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1451-8316CrediT:Conceptualization,Investigation,Me-thodology,Writing.**NationalCentreforScientificResearch(CNRS).UniversitédeLille.Centrelilloisd’étudesetderecherchessociologiquesetéconomiques(Clersé).Lille.France.E-mail:gregory.salle@univ-lille.frOrcid:https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8025-5593CRediT:Conceptualization,Investigation,Methodology,Writing.1Introductionfig.1monitoredprivatebeachesAlongtheFrenchRiviera,beachfrontconcessionscreateavisuallystrikingalternationbetweenfreespacesandcommercializedareas.Inthehighseason,openbeachstripsareinterspersedwithenclosedsectionsoccupiedbyexpensivebarsandrestaurants[].Theseupscalebusinesseshavebuiltterracesonthesand,alignedrowsofdeckchairsandsunbeds,andmarkedtheirboun-byprivatesecurityguards.Inthiscontext,thedesigna-darieswithfences,occasionallytionhasbeenwidelyusedfordecadesandpersiststoday,despitebeingtechnicallyinaccurate.InFrance,beachescannotlegallybeprivatizedbelowthehigh-waterline,ascoastalregulationsguaranteepublicaccesstoshorelinesandthefreeuseofbeaches(Prieur,2020).Thispersistentmisnomerrevealsafundamentaltension:thebeachconcessionregimeoperatesatthenexusofnormsandexceptions,ordinaryuseandeliteprivilege,privateexploitationandpublicownership(LeRouxandMorera,2025).Figura1-PampelonneBeach,Ramatuelle(France),summer2019.Source:Photooftheauthorsduringfieldwork,summer2019.DomainepublicmaritimeThebeachconcessionregimehasintroducedaloopholeintheFrench“maritimepublicdomain”sq],historicallydeemedinalienableandimprescriptible(Hostiou,1990;[.).Itappearsasaquasi-privatization,wherepublicspacesaremanagedPancracio,2024,p.122asprivateamenities.State-issuedconcessionsdonotconferprivatepropertyrights,buttheyau-thorizecommercialoperatorstotemporarilyexploitbeachsegmentsbyinstallingphysicalame-nitiesonthesand.Onemightassumethatbeachconcessionshavedevelopedwithinaclearlydefinedcontractualframework,sincethelegalframeworkgoverningcoastalrightshasdeephis-toricalroots.ThescholarshiptracesitsoriginstoColbert’s1681ordinance,considered“thefirstcoastallaw”(LeBouëdec,2010,p.136-137),oreventothe1566EdictofMoulins1.1TheEdictofMoulins—distinctfromtheOrdinanceofMoulins,issuedatthesametime—wasaregulatoryframeworkgoverningtheFrenchroyaldomain.Itestablishedacleardistinctionbetweenapermanentdomain,whichwasstrictlyinalienable,andacasualdomain,overwhichtheKingofFranceretaineddiscretionaryauthorityfollowingitsacquisition.Asthelegalprecursortotheprincipleofinalienabilityinthemodernpublicdomain,thisedictremainsacornerstoneofFrenchcontemporarypubliclaw.2IsabelleBruno;GrégorySalleIntheMediterranean,wherethemaritimepublicdomainisspatiallylimitedduetominimaltidal2.Yetlegalandadminis-variation,legalscholarsevengobacktoJustinian’ssixth-centuryInstitutestrativedocumentsrevealaratherunsettledsituation.Despitethislongtradition,Frenchcoastallawwasnotstableandremainedunderconstructionthroughoutthetwentiethcentury.Thisisparticularlytrueforbeachconcessions:theyhavevariabletitlesandtypesovertime,withseveralFrenchtermsroughlycorrespondingto“renting”or“leasing”beingoftenusedinterchangeably.Moreover,theobjecttowhichtheyapplydefiesclear-cutdelimitationanddefinition:thesandyforeshoreisnotinertandimmutable,butadynamicecosystemthatresistssovereigncontrol.Thisinducesananalyticalshiftbeyondlegalism,movingfromrulestostrategies(BourdieuandLamaison,1986).Beachconcessionsraiseissuesthatextendbeyondthelegalsphere,encom-passingsocialpractices,economicstrategies,moralvalues,ecologicaldynamics,technicalissues,environmentaljusticeconcerns,etc.Morethanamerecontractualagreement,theyinvolveane-tworkofactors,activities,representations,procedures,data,texts,regulatoryplans,andcalcula-tivelogics—allembeddedinpower-knowledgerelations.Thisiswhyweconceptualizethiswholesetasa(Agamben,2009;LawlorandNale,2014).concessionapparatusFigure2-LocationoftheSaint-TropezPeninsula(France).Source:WikimediaCommons.[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Cotedazur.png].fig.2Toanalyzethisapparatus,wewillfocusontheemblematiccaseofPampelonneBeachinRama-tuelle,southeasternFrance[].LocatedontheeasternSaint-Tropezpeninsula,this4,5km--far-famedbeachiswidelyregardedasthebirthplaceoftheFrenchRivieramodel,orMediterra-2CommissionedbyEmperorJustinian,theInstitutes(533CE)wereanelementarylegalmanual.Whilecarryingtheforceoflaw,thissetoflegalprinciplesalsoservedapedagogicalpurpose,designedspecificallyforlawstudents.TranslatedintoFrenchasearlyasthe13thcentury,itlaidthefoundationforlegaleducationacrossEuropeforovereightcenturies,inclu-dingtheRomanprinciplethatcoastalshoreswereinalienablepublicassets,aconceptthatshapedMediterraneanmaritimelawfromantiquitytomodernpublicdomaindoctrines.3Themakingofthecoastalconcessionapparatusnean-stylemodelofbeachconcessions.Whilestandingoutforreasonsthatareatoncehistorical,geographical,legal,andreputational,italsorevealsbroaderpatterns(Ferrand,2014;Chauchard,2015).Basedonthepremisethat“allsociologyshouldbehistoricalandallhistorysociological”(BourdieuandWacquant,1992,p.90),ourapproachcentersonthemakingofastill-emerging—andattimescontroversial—concessionsystemoverthehalf-century(1920s-1970s)when“sum-merbodies”emergedandthe“summerMediterranean”gainedrenown(Urbain,2014;Granger,2017).Thiscasestudythushighlightsaparticularlytellingexampleof“coastalcapitalism”(Kahrl,2020),whileenrichingtheexistingscholarshiponbeachesascontestedspaces(BidetandDevien-ne,2017;Sartore,Pereira,andRodrigues,2019;Low,2025).Indoingso,weaimtoovercomethetwopitfallsofthedominantnarrativeonPampelonneBeach(BrunoandSalle,2017).First,thisnarrativetendstodisconnectthisbeachfromitsnaturalandsocialsurroundings,asanecosystemandasaterritory.Makingitaseparate,autonomous,nearlyinsularplaceisanintegralpartofacommodifiedspace.Second,mostaccounts—includingofficialAndGodCrea-documents—startthestoryofthisbeachinthe1950s,coincidingwiththeemergenceofseasidetedWomanrestaurants.Theyinvariablyfeaturethesamekeyevents,especiallythefilmingofstarringBrigitteBardotandthefoundingofabeachvenuecalledClub55.Whilethisdecadewasundeniablyaturningpoint,markingtheriseoftheseasideeconomy,suchanarrowviewobscuresthebeach’searliersocialandenvironmentalhistory.Itstartsfromthemomentwhenthebeachbecamearecreationalconsumergood,amomentwehistoricizeherebyshowinghowconflictsoverappropriationamongvariousactors—governmentofficials,localrepresenta-tives,beachmanagers,environmentaladvocates,andbeachgoers—havereshapedthematerialandsymbolicdimensionsof“theonlyplaceofenjoymentthatthehumanspecieshasdiscoveredinnature”(.,p.384).ibidDrawingonlocalandnationalarchives,ourstudyaimstoembedthecaseofPampelonneBeach3.Thishelpsavoidateleologicalbias,accordingtowhichPampelonnewithinabroadercontextBeachwas“naturally”destinedtobecomeafamedrecreationalspaceandaneconomicasset.Byunpackingapivotalera,duringwhichtheconcessionapparatustookshape—notwithoutsomestrife—,ourapproachinvestigatesthepowerrelationsandsocialconflictsthathaverenderedtheshorelineexploitable,showinghowrecreational“nature”hasbeenconstructedthroughaprocessthatturned(seaside)landintoa“fictitiouscommodity”(Polanyi,2001[1944]).Concedingthebeach:convertingnaturalbeautiesintosourcesofprofitFrenchhistorianAlainCorbin(1995)hasshownhowthebeachwasgradually“invented”asadesirablespaceinupper-classperceptionsandpracticesfromthemid-eighteenthtothemid-nine-teenthcentury.YethisanalysisprimarilyfocusedontheAtlanticcoast,leavingtheMediterraneanontheperiphery.Bytheearlytwentiethcentury,PampelonneBeachwasnotano-man’s-land.Itwasnotyetaplaceoccupiedonadurablebasisbutaplacewherepeoplecameandwentforsub-sistenceandlocaluses.Forinstance,farmerscollectedsandandharvestedseagrass,merchantsusedthispartoftheshoretoshipwinebyboat,andworkerssoughtrefreshmentintheseaduringthegrapeharvest.3Wedrewonnational,regional,andlocalarchivalcollections,mainlypublic,butalsoprivate.Weusedthefollowingacronyms:NA(NationalArchives,Pierrefitte);DAV(DepartmentalArchivesofVar,Draguignan);CAR(CommunalArchives,Ramatuelle),andFIA(FrenchInstituteofArchitecture,Paris);PA(Privatearchives).4IsabelleBruno;GrégorySalleFromthispointforward,however,PampelonneBeachunderwentarapidyetprofoundtransfor-mation.Inhalfacentury,anddespitewardamage,anuncultivatedspace,hardlyseenasaneco-nomicassetbylocalsanduntouchedbytourism,wastransformedintoaprofitable,“assembledresource”(Li,2014),ultimatelybecomingthedrivingforcebehindregionaleconomicgrowth.Tounderstandthisprocess,wemustexaminetheformationoftheconcessionapparatusasastate--craftedinstrumentofvaluation,capitalizingonthescenicqualitiesoftheplace.Valuinguncultivatednature:fromsandminingtoseasidetourismnaturalbeautiessourcesofprofitpréfetinto:thisistheambitionexpressedbyThéophileBar-Converting]ofVar,inaletteraddressedinFebruary1922tothemayorsofcoastaltownsnier,prefect[4.Alawyerbytraining,representingthecentralstateatthelocallevel,heexhortedthemintheareato“safeguardthesituationofbeaches”against“theselfish”whoharmedthelandscapethroughrealestateconstructionormineralextraction.Boththroughthesplendorofitssitesandthemildnessofitsclimate,theCôted’Azurhasundoubtedlyacquiredaworldwidereputation.[...]ItisindeedundeniablethattheVar’sCôted’Azurisincomparable,encompassingtheshoresalongwhichdescendtheforestsdépartementoftheEstérelandtheMaures,thesetwowoodedmassifsbeingentirelyincludedinour.Thisregionthusconstitutes,atthesametimeasoneofthemostbeautifuljewelsofthenaturalbeautiesofourCountry,oneofthemostimportantsourcesofprofitthroughtheinfluxofforeignmoneyitprovokes.ItthereforeappearsthatthereisnotonlyalocalinterestinseeingourCôted’Azurtaketheconsiderableextensionthatseemstobeitsdestiny:itisalsoofnationalinterest.Youwillnodoubtagreewithmethatthereis,indeed,awealthonwhichwemustwatchandwhichitisourdutytoencouragethegrowthof.(Letterfromthe[FIA,343AA4/6].)ofVar,T.Barnier,tothemayorsoftheVarcoast,February27,1922.PréfetthsyndicateadhocintermunicipalbodycalledThroughthecreationofan,theprefectsoughttouniteseveralcoastalmunicipalitiesaroundthedevelopmentoftheVarshoreline.Thisinitiati-veaimedtoleveragethetouristexpansionoftheneighboringAlpes-Maritimes—picturesquenaturehometocitieslikeCannesandNice—whilepreservingtheVar’suniqueruralcharacter.Asthewasframedasaresourcetobeexploited,itwasnottobecompromisedbydépartementexcessiveurbanization.InMarch1922,theRamatuellemunicipalcouncilheldanextraordinarysessioninresponsetothisletter,duringwhichmembersunanimouslydecidedtofollowBarnier’srecommendations.Togetherwithothercoastalmunicipalities,Ramatuellethenjoinedanewsyndicatedevotedto5.Thefollowingyear,the“theprotection,development,andenhancementoftheVar’sCôted’Azur”syndicate’sfirstbulletinclearlymadebeachesapriority:4OnthehistoricalroleoftheFrenchpréfet,seeMachin(1974),Tanguy(2021).Atthetimeofthisletter,Francewasledbya5right-wingcoalitiongovernmentknownastheBlocnational.ExtraordinarysessiononMarch19th,1922[CAR,2W1D10].ThetermCôted’AzurwascoinedbytheFrenchwriterandpoliticianStéphenLiégeardinhis1887eponymousbook.Reissuedin1894,itplayedakeyroleinpopularizingtheregion.Forbroaderhistoricalcontext,seeBlume(1992)andMiles(2024).5ThemakingofthecoastalconcessionapparatusThedefenseofbeachesranksatthetopofouragenda.Thequestionisofthehighestim-portanceforallourmunicipalities,whosebeachesaremoreorlessthreatenedbythein-terventionofindividuals.(Syndicateofcoastalmunicipalitiesfortheprotection,developmentandenhancementoftheVarCôted’Azur,Bulletinno.1,Draguignan,Olivier-JoulianPrint.,1923.[FIA,343AA4/6].)interventionofindividualsAdministrationdesDomaines,thepresidentofthesyndicatewasalludingtothepossibilityopenedByupbythe(similartostatelandsadministration)ofacquiringcoastallandbyauction.AccordingtothemayorofCogolin,aneighboringtownofRamatuelle,thisappliedtoasmallbeachinhisterritory:hespeaksofa“sale”,of“alienationtoabuyer”,butnotofacon-cession;thiswordhasnotyetbeenpronounced,notevenbytheprefect.Localrepresentativesdidnotonlyblameindividualpotentialbuyersbutalsothecentralstate.Byalienatingitsterritory,theylamented,stateofficialshamperpublicaccesstothecoast.Consequently,thesyndicatecol-lectivelyadoptedamotion—supportedbytheprefect,whodeclaredthathewas“personallyandvehementlyopposedtothissale”—statingthatthestateshould“undernocircumstances”putcoastalplotsoflandupforsale.Municipalitiesthenfacedconflictingdemandsregardingbeachgovernance.Ononehand,localelectedrepresentativeswerepromptedbyahigh-rankingstatecivilservanttoview“their”be-achesas“resources”whose“value”shouldbeincreased.Theywerethusexpectedtodevelopandexploitlocalbeachestoattractseasonalresidentsandvacationers.Ontheotherhand,theshorelinesremainedundertheresponsibilityofthestate,whichalreadyutilizedthemforprofit,includingthroughthesaleofforeshoreplotstothehighestbidders.Thispracticehasindeedalonghistory:itwasusedontheChannelandAtlanticcoastssincethefirsthalfofthenineteenthcentury,althoughsometimestriggeringlocalreluctanceorresistance.Aroyalordinanceof1825authorizingprefectstoputportionsoftheFrenchshorelineouttotenderhasfuelledcontinuouscontroversyaroundthe“renting”or“leasing”ofthemaritimepublicdomainbythecentralstate(Vincent,2007,p.67.).OntheVarcoast,state-directedpracticeswereofparticularconcernformunicipalitiesbecausetheyseemedtocontradicttheprojectsupportedbyPrefectBarnier.sqMoreover,hissuccessor,PaulCameau,tookaratherdifferentline.Inaletteraddressedin1925tothemayorofGassin,alsolocatedontheSaint-Tropezpeninsula,thenewprefectofVararguedthat“toputupforsalebyauctioninapublicandcompetitiveway”waswhatactuallyallowsa“saleatthebestprice”.Hefurtherexplained:[…]currentnecessitiesrequirethattheStatedrawsthemostadvantageousbenefitfromitsDomain.WhileitisarulethatfacilitiesaregrantedtoMunicipalitiestotakeaccountoftheinterestsofthepopulationstheyadminister,onecannot,however,grantthemdomainpropertiesforpricessubstantiallylowerthantheirrealvalue.(LetterfromtheprefectofVartothemayorofGassin,December11,1925.[DAV,4S7-11].)thadjudicationThus,thenewprefectvoicedthestate’sinterestsinprofitingfromitsdomain,opposinglocalas-pirationsformunicipalcontroloftheshore.Whenaprojecttoputupforsaletheforeshoreof]emerged,itprovokedstrongoppositionfromPampelonnebeachbypublicauction[Ramatuelleelectedrepresentatives.Notably,however,itwaslesstheprincipleofthesaleitselfthatgeneratedprotestthanthetermsoftheauction,whichwouldnotallowcontrolovertheiden-tityofpotentialpurchasers.Whenapproachedbystateofficialsregardingthismatter,localrepre-sentativessuggestedthattheforeshoreplotsmightinterestfutureownersfromaparceloflandit6IsabelleBruno;GrégorySallehadjustapprovedandexpressedconcernthatanauctionwouldpotentiallyopenthewaytosandminingcompanies.Suchindustrialactivity,theywarned,wouldprovedetrimentaltobeachfrontpropertyowners,whoselandswouldbesubjecttosaltwaterintrusion,aswellastotourists,whowouldloseaccesstotheshoreline.Intheeyesoflocalofficials,theemergingseasideeconomywouldthusbeendan-gered.In1929,duringamunicipalcouncilsession,membersformallyprotestedagainstthe“pro-6.Atthattime,andthenagainjecttoputtheforeshoreofPampelonnebeachupforpublicauction”in1930,thetowncouncilproposedamoredirectsolution:“toacquire[fromthestate]thetotalityoftheforeshoreatapricecompatiblewithitsfinancialresources”.Thecouncilspecificallynotedthatit“doesnotwishtomakeanyprofit”,butmerelyintends“tokeepthebeachinitscurrentstateandthuspreserveitsbathing,tourist,andpicturesquevalue7”.Ultimately,theauctionwascancelledinfavorofastate-drivenprojectfordevelopingtheVararea,morespecifically,theSaint-Tropezpeninsula.AligningwithearlierBarnier’srecommendations,itsobjectivewasto“preservetheaestheticcharacter”oftheregion,apreciousnaturalresourcethat8.Butthistime,localactorswereexcludedfromtheprocess.the“touristindustry”shouldexploitStateofficialsintendedtoexploitthecoastalpublicdomaindirectlyandexclusively.Importantly,throughauctioningtherightstohowever,itwasnolongerthroughthesaleofforeshoreplotsseabathing9.but,10]and“auction”[Asearlyas1912,astandardsetofspecificationsforbeach“rental”hadbeenjointlydevelopedatthestatelevelbytheFrenchMinistryofPublicWorksandtheDepartmentofFinancetostandar-.Theaimwastogeneralizetheauctionsystemasame-dizepreviouslyinformallocalpracticesadjudicationlocationthodofallocatingtothehighestbidderstheprovisionalrighttoexploitbeachparcels.Whilethe]remainedpredominant,“concession”waswords“rental”[alsoused.Article9ofthetermsandconditionsstated“thecancellationoftheconcession”incaseofnon-executionofprescribedmeasures.Asevidencedbyarchivalsources,thebeachconcessionsysteminPampelonnereallyemergedinthelate1940s,whenthefirstimprovisedbeachentre-.Asseasidetourismgrew,municipa-preneursbegannegotiatingdirectlywithpublicauthoritieslities—workingintandemwiththeGeneralOfficeofTourism(attachedtotheMinistryofPublicWorks,Transport,andTourism)—succeededinestablishingthemselvesasakeycomponentoftheconcessionapparatus.116MunicipalcouncilofRamatuelle,sessionofOctober17th,1929[CAR,2W1D10].7DeliberationsofthemunicipalcouncilofRamatuelle,sessionsofOctober17th,1929andApril27,1930[CAR,2W1D10].8Programmedel’aménagementdelapresqu’îletropézienne910perse,DepartmentofVar,n.d.[1931][CAR,3Dseries].Seabathingwasbelievedtohavetherapeuticvirtues,intandemwithnaturalsunlight(Woloshyn,2013;Urbain,2014).Atthattime,thebeachwasnotyetisolatedasaseparateenvironment:whatmatteredmostwasitssituationasaninterfacebetweenlandandsea.PontsetChausséesLetterfromtheMinisterofPublicWorks,PostsandTelegraphstotheChiefEngineer,thedepartmentofcivilengineeringth11[],December30,1912[NA,19920097/65].LettersaddressedtothemayorofRamatuelleinthemid-1960ssuggestthatthefirstbeachestablishmentsdatebacktotheimmediatepost-warperiod,withoutcountingatleastoneunofficialforerunnerasearlyasthelate1930s.InaletterfromFebruary1966,oneoftheveryfirstbeachmanagers(theFrenchwordwasjustemerging,aswewillsee)mentionsabeachoperatedsince1946.InaletterfromDecember1964,anothermentionsanauthorizationtorunabar-restaurantgrantedin1949[CAR6W23/2].plagiste7ThemakingofthecoastalconcessionapparatusSharingthespoils:conceding…butatwhatprice?AdozenyearsaftertheProvencelandingsin1944,FrenchgeographerÉtienneJuillard(1957)describedaMaurescoastlineinfulltransformation.Thiscoastline,whichhedistinguishedfromtheCôted’Azurstrictlyspeaking,waschangingundertheeffectoftheriseofautomobiletransportandmasstourism.TheauthorarguedthattheMediterraneanagriculturaleconomywasgraduallybeingcomplemented,ifnotreplaced,byaseasideeconomy.Profitperspectiveswereshifting,aswellaspowerdynamics.Associationnationaledesmairesdesstationsthermales,climatiques,balnéairesInthiscontext,coastalmayorsadvocatedmoreassertivelyforalocalcontrolofbeaches.Officiallyettouristiquescreatedin1930,the(NationalAssociationofMayorsofThermal,Climatic,Seaside,andTouristResorts,inEnglish)relauncheditsactivitieswithacongressin1947.Inastanceadoptedin1956,itsGene-ralAssemblychallengedtheattitudeoftheCivilService,which“secureownershipofthebeachesofwhichthemunicipalitiesaredispossessed”.Themayorsaffirmedtheirdesiretosupervisethebeacheslocatedintheirterritorythemselves“becauseoftheirtouristimportanceand,possibly,thebudgetarycommitmentstheyentail”12.ThispositionwasembracedbythepresidentoftheassociationwhenhevisitedtheMinistryofFinance,accompaniedbyarepresentativeoftheGeneralDirectorateofTourism.Theaimwastoputanendtothesystematicapplicationoftheauctionprocedure,whoseresultsweredeemed“unfortunate”,sinceit“leadstotheattributionoftheconcessiontothehighestbidderbutdoesnotofferthemunicipalityallthedesirableguaranteesregardingsafetyandhygiene,.”Theassociationthereforeadvo-andincaseofpublicdiscontent,themayorisoftenblamedcatedprioritizingtheattributionofbeachconcessionstomunicipalities,aclaimthatarousedseriousreluctancefromthestateadministrationinchargeofthepublicdomain.Stateoffi-cialsdefendedtheauctionprocedure—andthusasystembasedonfreecompetition—whilestrivingtoappearaccommodating.Theyrecalledthatinpractice,theygenerallyfavoredanamicableagreementwiththemunicipality,aslongasthefinancialconditionswereconsideredsatisfactory.13In1958,adelegationfromthemayors’associationonceagainapproachedthecentraladministra-tion.Subsequently,thelatterundertooktodraftanewsetofstandardspecificationsincollabo-rationwiththeGeneralOfficeofTourism.Aftermultipleattemptsbymayorstoensuretherighttoexploitbeachlotsinthecontextofrisingmasstourisminthisarea,acircularissuedinMarch1959partiallymettheirdemands.Twoaspectsofthisdevelopmentdeserveparticularattention.First,whereastherightsofmunicipalconcessionaireshadpreviouslybeenrestrictedtoinstallingcabinsinadditiontotablesandchairs,itwas“decidedtogeneralizethepracticeofincludingintheconcessiongrantedtothemunicipalitytheexploitationsthathadpreviouslybeenthesubjectofparticularconcessions:physicaleducationclasses,children’sgardens,pedalboats,miniaturegolfcourses,etc.”Second,thenewregulationsextendedgrantingdurationstonineyears,departingfromthepreviousprincipleofannualconcessions14.12ExtractfromthenoteoftheDirectorGeneralofTaxes(Domainservice)totheMinisterofPublicWorks,TransportandstNotesurl’adjudicationdesplagesTourismabouttherentaloftherighttoexploitbeaches,July21Notesurlesproblèmesposésparleslocationsetconcessionsdeplages,n.d.[1959][NA19920097/65].,n.d.[1956][NA19920097/65].,1958[NA19920097/65].13148IsabelleBruno;GrégorySalleInRamatuelle,themayorseizedthisopportunitytoclaimcontroloverPampelonnebeach.Havingconsultedwiththecentraladministration,heinformedthetowncouncilasearlyas1959thatgrantingportionsofthebeachwouldbefinanciallyadvantageous.Negotiationswerepromptlyinitiated,andby1960,anagreementwasreachedforfourbeachplots,resultingina‘3-6-9’(ye-ars)licensingagreement,withaconcessionfeeamountingto15%ofrevenues.In1961,themuni-cipalityrequestedtorentthe“entirefreeportionsofthebeachthatmaybesublet”andproposed“afixedfeeasaminimum,plusanexceptionalfeeequalto50%oftherevenuefromsublets”.Threeyearslater,themunicipalcouncilformallyproposedtoacquiregrantsfortheremainingportionsofbeachstilldirectlyadministeredbythestate,withtheobjectiveof“continuingthede-.Allinall,throughincrementalsteps,velopmentofthebeachtoallowitsaccessandexploitation”themunicipalityeventuallyobtainedwhatwasthendesignatedasa“leaseoftherighttoexploitseabathing”.Inturn,themunicipalitysubleasedthisrighttoprivateentrepreneursonanannualbasis.Thismethodwasadecisivefactorintheformationoftheconcessionapparatus.Yettheproceduralimplementationcouldremainremarkablyinformal,asillustratedbyahastilydraftedhandwrittenletterfrom1965:15Mr.Mayor,Ihavethehonortorequestfromyourhighbenevolencetherenewalfor1966ofthebeachconcessionNo.3(locatedatPampelonne–LePinet)thatIhaveoccupiedfor4/6[]years.IleftRamatuellethisyear,“my”beachiscleanandfreeofallmysuppliers,andmydebtstotheTreasuryweresettledontime.Withmygratitude,pleasereceive,Sir,theassuranceofmyrespectfulgreetings.(LetteraddressedtothemayorofRamatuelle,October1965[CAR–n.c.].)illegibleTobesure,thestate’sgrantingofconcessionrightswasbasedonstricttermsandconditions,fromthedeterminationofthetermsofreferencetothecalculationofassociatedfees.Onthewhole,theconcessionapparatuswasbeneficialforthestateintwoways.Itactedbothasamechanismforsteadyfee-basedrevenuecollectionandasaregulatoryinstrumentthroughwhichthegover-denmentcouldcontroltheactivitiesofconcessionaires.Thisarrangement,however,wastroubledfactobyanemergingthatbegantoorganizeitselftoassertcollectiveaccessrightsagainstthepublicexclusionarypracticesthatbeachoperatorshadgraduallyassumed.The(granted)beachasacontentiousspaceFromthemid-1960s,conflictsovertheuseofthebeachintensifiedduetothepermanentpresenceofbeachbusinessesontheforeshore.Thesebusinessestendedtoextendbeyondthelimitssetbylaw,oratleasttotakeadvantageofalegalgreyarea.OnlytwodecadesaftertheAlliedlandingsinProvence(OperationDragoon),duringwhichPampelonneBeachhadservedasabattlefieldinAu-gust1944,localandnationalnewspaperscharacterizedthesituation,withsomeexaggeration,asa“beachwar”.The“belligerents”comprisednotonlythestateandthemunicipalities,butalsoan].emergingprofessionalgroup,beachconcessionairesorcommercialbeachmanagers[Theformationofthisnew,soonpowerfulcollectiveactorneedstobeoutlinedtocomprehendthesocio-spatialreconfigurationthatunfoldedduringthe1960sand1970s.plagistes15DeliberationsoftheMunicipalCouncilofRamatuelle,sessionofFebruary20,1964[CAR2W2].9ThemakingofthecoastalconcessionapparatusTheproliferationofbeachvenuesandprofessionalizationofbeachmanagersplagisteFé-(NationalFederationofUnionswascoinedin1964torefertobeachmanagersoperatingprofit-makingTheFrenchwordFédérationdessyndicatsd’exploitantsestablishments.Atthattime,theseactorshadalreadybeguntoorganizethemselvesonanationallevel.Theyweregroupedinadeplage(FederationofBeachConcessionaires’Unions,inEnglish),whichaimedtocounterbalancetheaforementionedMayorsFédérationnationaledessyndicatsd’exploi-Association.tantsdepiscinesetd’établissementsdebainsdemeretderivièresInDecember1960,followingamergerprojectwithinadérationdessyndicatsdeplagesdesAlpes-MaritimesofSwimmingPoolsandSeasideBathingEstablishments,inEnglish),twoorganizations,theSyndicatnationaldespiscinesetplagesàbaignadesde(FederationofBeachUnionsoftheAlpes-Ma-Franceritimes,inEnglish),basedinNice,andthe(NationalUnionofFrance’sPoolsandBathingEstablishments,inEnglish),basedinParis,16drewupa“draftdefiningthestatusoftheprofessionofbathingestablishmentmanager”.Thistextchallengedthelegalregimethatdefinedtheconditionsofoccupationofthemaritimepublicdomain.The“concessionoflimitedrealrights”,theauthorsargued,harmedtheir“produc-tivity”andthe“optimaleconomicpromotion”ofthecoastline.Complainingaboutanexcessivelyshortduration,coupledwithariskofrevocabilitythatwasdeemedtodiscourageinvestment,theoperatorscalledforatraditionalcommercialleaseorlong-termoccupationgrant.Distrus-tingofcentralauthorities,theyalsoadvocatedthecreationoflocalbeachcommissions,withinafullyformalizedlegalframeworkyettobeestablished.Thisnewpressuregroupcouldleanontheenactmentofa1963lawonmaritimepublicdomain,whichfostered“thesearchforarationalandprofitableuseofthenationalterritory”(Juret,1964,p.16).plagistesAttheregionallevel,asignificantadvancementintheprofessionalizationofoccurredadecadelater.Asgrowingstakeholders,theystrategicallyattemptedtoinfluenceastillvolatilelegislationtoalignwiththeircommercialinterests.InOctober1972,Mediterraneancommercial,includingVar—convenedinbeachmanagers—twohundreddelegatesfromfour.First,animprovedlegalstatusthatwouldshieldthemNiceandvoicedthreemaindemandsfromwhattheyviewedasthe“arbitrarypower”ofthegrantingauthority.Second,thecreationofanationalbeachboardtoharmonizeadministrativedecisions,considered“oftencontradictory”.Third,theimplementationoflong-termconcessionagreementstofacilitatesteadyinvestment.départements17Thesedemandsarticulatedamoregeneralprotestagainstwhatbeachoperatorsperceivedasthe“precariousness”oftheirprofessionalsituation.Thisclaimforstabilityandrecognitionwasthepremiseofanenduringgrievancethatwouldbereinvigoratedwiththeadoptionofthe1986Fren-chCoastalAct—alegislationpartlydesignedtocurtailtheincreasingencroachmentonthecoastbyprivateinterests—andhasbeenpersistentlyreiteratedinsubsequentdecades.fig.3a,3bAtthelocallevel,beachestablishmentsproliferatedduringthe1960sand1970s[].Byexploitingacontentiouslegalsituation,theynotonlymultipliedbutalsoestablishedpermanent1617“Drafttextestablishingthestatusoftheprofessionofoperatorsofbathingestablishments”,December9,1960[NA19920097/65].Notethattheoperatorsmention“private”establishments,nottheadministrative-legalcategoryof“publicservicetransfer”[Lesplagistesdemandentunstatut]thatwilllaterprevail.servicepublicdélégationdeLeMonderdthSee,,October23,1972.Aswewillsee,thismeetingtookplaceshortlyaftertheadoptionofanewstandardnationalconcessioncontractinJune1972.10IsabelleBruno;GrégorySallestructuresonthesand—evenoutsidethepeakseason—farbeyondthesimple,removablestrawLeMondehutsorshacksthatthelawwasintendedtoallow.Asearlyas1964,44plotswererentedoutinPampelonne,someofthemwithfiftymetersofseafront.InAugust1965,anarticleincondemnedthe“monopolizationofthebeaches”,describinga“ratherconfused”legalsituationanddeploringthe“downright‘caging’ofthebeachesandthemostfamoussitesresultingfromthemultiplicationofconcessionsgrantedbythemunicipalities”.18Figure3a-TahitiBeach”establishment(postcards,1955and1980).Source:CommunalArchives,RamatuelleFigure3b-TahitiBeach”establishment(postcards,1955and1980).Source:CommunalArchives,Ramatuelle.“Destouristesmanifestentcontrel’accaparementdesplages”,LeMonde,August19,1965.1811ThemakingofthecoastalconcessionapparatusAsinothercontexts,thesocialtrajectoryofbeachentrepreneursmatters(Sartore,LeiteandRo-drigues,2023).Inthiscase,mostwereoutsiderstotheregion,lackinglocalties;thisstatusnotonlyshapedtheostentatiously“exotic”styleofthesevenuesbutalsoorientedthemtowardanexternalclientele.Theywerealsopronetobendingtherulesandfrequentlyexceedingtheautho-rizednorms—regardingbothtime(permanentoccupationinsteadoftemporaryuse)andspace(surpassingtheprescribedlimitsinwidthorlength).Atthattime,fewenvironmentalassociationsexistedtochallengetheinfluenceofbeachoperators.Moreover,theyoftenadoptedanambiguousstance—advocatingforenvironmentalprotectionwhileresistingsocio-economicdiversity(Cha-bert,2016).ThissituationsparkednumerousconflictsinPampelonneBeach,aselsewherealongtheMediter-raneancoast.AlbinChalandon,MinisterofInfrastructureandHousingfrom1968to1972,wasforcedtointervenerepeatedlytodefusetensions.InAugust1970,heappearedontelevisiontodefendthelegalityoftheconcessions,insistingthatthebeachwaspublicandthusopentoall,.Ayearlater,facedwithongoingcon-againsttheallegedexistenceofso-calledflicts,heannouncedamoratoriumonnewconcessionrequests.Yettheconcessionapparatuswaspersistedinpublicdiscourse,evenbeingusedalreadyentrenched,andthetermprivatizationenabledbybyhisownadvisorsintheprogressivepresstheconcessionapparatus.BeachWars.Thisrevealedtheprivatebeachesprivatebeachesdefacto19plagistebeachwars,themid-1960switnessedthepress-CoincidingwiththeemergenceoftheFrenchterm.Centeredaroundseverallocalscandalsandlegalcasesthatgained-coinedphrasenationalsignificance(notablyinSaint-Raphaëlin1965andinLeLavandouin1970),thismeta-phoricalmanifestedintwodistinctdimensions.war20Thefirstaspectconcernedphysicalaccesstothebeach,whichwashinderedbyprivateproperty.AtPampelonne,intheabsenceofaseafrontroad,themunicipalityassumedresponsibilityforcarvingoutverticalaccessroutesbyincorporatingsomeruralandneighborhoodpathwaysintothemunicipalroadnetwork.Localrepresentativeshadtonegotiatewithownersoflandadjacenttothebeachtosecuretheirconsent,achievingamicableagreementsthatstateauthoritieswouldlikelyhavebeenunabletoobtain.Theseconddimensioninvolvednotonlyaccessbutoccupation,stemmingfromthecommercialoperationofthebeaches.Thesublettingofconcededforeshoretobeachmanagers—whowereinstallingfacilitiesanderectingfencestodemarcatetheirallocatedlots—effectivelyreducedtheareaavailabletothegeneralpublicwhodidnotpatronizethesebeachfrontvenuesandimpededfreemovementalongthecoastline.In1966,againstabackgroundofincreasingincidentsbetweensummervacationersandbeachmanagers,Ramatuelle’stowncouncil,consideredresponsibleforthepublicorderonthebeach,putontheagendaa“projectfortherevisionoftheplots”to“respondtotheprotestsofthepublic1920“Wedonotwantto“shootthebeachmanagers”,buttolegalizethesituationandfindabalancebetweenpublicbeachesandSeee.g.“La‘guerredesplages’àSaint-Raphaël”,LeMonde,August27th,1965;“Laguerredesplagesdoitêtregagnée”,Témoi-privatebeaches.”Quotedin“Plagesprivées:nouvelleréglementationmiseaupointcethiver”,gnagechrétien,September2nd,1965.,July30,1971.thCombat12IsabelleBruno;GrégorySalleformoreextensiveopenspaces”.Fourrelateddecisionsweretaken:(1)“topursuetheremovalofallinstallationsundulyremaininginthemaritimedomain”and“todrawallconsequencesthatwillbedeemedusefulregardinglatecomers”,suggestingathreatofnon-renewal;(2)“toproceedtoanewimplantationoflotstoberented”,whileplanningto“reducetheirimportanceinordertoex-tendthezonesoffreebeaches”,withaviewtocurbthecreepingprivatizationofthecoast;(3)“todefinetheconditionsofsublettingbymutualagreement,accordingtothesituationoftheplots”,toputanendtomoreorlessinformalagreements;(4)“totakeallprovisionsforthemaintenanceofportionsoffreebeach,inparticularbypartiallyimposingitasachargeonsubtenantsadjacenttotheunrentedportions”,awaytotransferpartofthisburdentobeachmanagersthemselves21.However,themanagementofPampelonnebeachprovedtobeincreasinglyburdensomeandcos-tlyforasmallruralmunicipalitylikeRamatuelle,whichin1965hadonly655votersandthirteentowncouncilors,mostofwhomweresmallfarmownersand/orwinegrowers.Inearly1967,theirdeliberationsindicatedthat“themaintenanceandrentalofthebeachesposedifficultproblems”.Thatyear,thesummerseasonwasonceagaincontentious,asillustratedforthemunicipalitybyalettersenttothemayorbyaParisianpresseditorinwhichhedeclaredthathewouldfileacomplaintwiththepublicprosecutorandnotifytheprefectofVartoasserthisrightto“freeaccesstothemaritimepublicdomain”:22Mr.Mayor,[...]Ihavethehonortoreporttoyoutheillegal,criminalactionsoftheoperatorofthefirsthutontheright,comingfromSt.Tropez,whicharelikelytotarnishthegoodreputationofyourbeaches.[...]Thefactsareasfollows:AsIwasgoingtobathewithmyfamilyinthisplace,thisindividualorderedmetotakeamattressortoclearoff.WhenIrefused,Iwasshoved,insultedinpublic,aswellasmywife,andfinally[...]Iwassurroundedbyfivemusclemenwhothreatenedto“smashmyfacein”,meandmythreechildren,ifIdidnotleaveimmediately.[…]P.S.:Iamnottheonlyonewhowastreatedthiswayandthisattitudewassystematic.th(RecordedhandwrittenletteraddressedtothemayorofRamatuelle,August27[CAR6W23/2].),1967Commis-Theseeminglylocalweaknessprovidedanopportunityforstateofficialstogaingroundwithinsioninterministérielled’aménagementtouristiquedulittoraltheconcessionapparatusattheexpenseoflocalrepresentatives.Thesameyear,1967,a(InterministerialCommitteefortheDevelopmentofTourismandCoastalPlanning,inEnglish)wascreatedunderthePrimeMinister’sauthority.Itsobjectivewastopromotea“real”investmentpolicyforcoastaldevelopment,especiallyontheFrenchRiviera.Asitturnsout,itwasinRamatuelle/Pampelonnethatthiscommitteeplannedtotestanewlegalstatusforbeachexploitation.Theconcessionwasthengrantedtoamixed-eco-nomycompany,calledSCETO(for,CentralOfficeforTouristEquipmentinEnglish),inchargeofpromotingandimplementing“sustainableplanning”.Theaim,however,wasnottopreservethenaturalenvironmentofthebeach,buttocombatthe“precariousness”ofbeachmanagersbygivingthemguaranteesfortheamortizationoftheirin-Sociétécentralepourl’équipementtouristiqueMunicipalCouncilofRamatuelle,sessionofJanuary21st,1966[CAR2W2].MunicipalCouncilofRamatuelle,sessionofJanuary12th,1967[CAR2W2].212213Themakingofthecoastalconcessionapparatusvestments.Forthispurpose,theoptionofafifty-yearemphyteuticleasewasevensuggested.ButtheSCETOwasviewedwithacertainsuspicionbytheRamatuelletowncouncil.Whileinitiallyself-describedasastudyofficeinchargeofdevelopingplanningprojects,itthenattemptedtotakeoverthemanagementofthebeach.Itapparentlydidsoforaveryshortperiodoftimebutthecon-troversialattempttomovefromconsultancytoeffectivemanagementquicklyfailed.23rentalconcessionwiththatofaproperIn1972,atthenationallevel,aninterministerialcircularmodifiedthespecificationsdatingfromtomodernize1912.Itreplacedthelegalregimeoftheandclarifyexistingregulations.Thenewconcessioncontractmodelwascharacterizedas“moreadaptedtocurrentoperatingconditions”,especially“intheMediterraneanregionwheretheden-.Theoretically,thecircularsityoftouristfrequentation”presented“particularlyacuteproblems”ostensiblypositionedtherightsofthepublic—freeaccessandcirculationalongtheshoreline—andtheobligationsofconcessionairesasfoundationalprinciplesofthenewregime.Practically,itsealedanambivalentcompromise.Whileitclaimedtocontainbeachconcessionswithinstrictproportions,itinstitutionalizedthempermanently.Thesizeoftheestablishments,thelengthofthecontracts,ortherateschargedcouldstillbediscussed,butnotsomuchtheexistenceofthebeachestablishmentsthemselves.24Municipalitiessecuredrecognitionasthe“privilegedpartnerofthestate”,whichwasnowobli-gatedtocontractprimarilywithlocalauthorities.Atthesametime,aquantitativethresholdwasdefined:upto30%ofbeachsurfaceareacouldbeallocatedtobeachmanagers,whocouldinstall.Thisrepresentedashiftfacilitiesand“makethestationingofthepublicsubjecttotheiruse”fromalegalregimeinwhichthestategrantedrightstoexploitseabathingactivitiestoonewhe-rethephysicalbeachspaceitself,asasociallyproducedspace,becametheexplicitobjectoftheconcession.25Directiondépartementaledel’ÉquipementInRamatuelle,thenewmayorelectedin1971,AlbertRaphaël,negotiatedtheconcessiontotakecontrolofbeachmanagement.AgainstSCETO,thislocalfigureoftheFrenchSocialistPartyalliedwithbeachoperatorstoobtainafifteen-yearconcession,exemptfromdomainfees,toundertakethenecessaryworksforthedevelopmentofabeachofnationalreputation.Afternegotiations,in1974,the(DepartmentalDirectorateofEquipment,inEnglish)senttothetowncouncilaconcessionapplicationfileforfifteenyears.Itcamewithanannualfee,butinreturn,itwasaccompaniedbypublicsupportgrantedbytheMinistryofTerrito-rialDevelopmentwithintheframeworkofanationalobjectiveaimedatopeninguponehundredkilometersofbeachesby1977.IntheeyesofthemayorofRamatuelle,theattributionofthiscon-cessionmarkedasupervisionofthebeachbythemunicipality”.26Thisincreasinglocalcontrol,however,shouldnotbeinterpretedasasimpleabdicationofstateauthoritythroughpowertransfer.Asrevealedbythespecifications’provisions,prefecturaldecre-es,andcorrespondenceexchangedwithconcessionarymunicipalities,thegrantingstatemain-tainedvigilantattentiontotheexploitationmodalitiesofsubcontractedlots.Prefecturalservices2324“Deuxobjectifspourlacommissiond’aménagementdulittoral”,LesÉchos,June8th,1967.LetterfromtheMinistryofEquipmentandHousing(DirectorateofMaritimePortsandWaterways),theMinistryofEcon-omyandFinance(GeneralDirectorateofTaxes,DepartmentofLandandDomainAffairs),toPrefects,“Subject:concessionstofanaturalbeachtoamunicipality,toasyndicateofmunicipalitiesortoadepartment”,June1,1972[CAR,n.c.].,1972relatingtotheconcessionofnaturalbeachestoamunicipality,toasyndicateofmunici-26palitiesortoadepartment(“Specifications”).Mayorforthirtyyears(1971-2001)Retrospectively,hewouldsummarizetheoperationintheseterms:“from1973on,wetookcontrolof[Pampelonnebeach]:RaphaëlAlbert,(provisionaltitle),unpublishedtypescript[PA].1425stCircularN°72-86ofJune1IsabelleBruno;GrégorySalleoccasionallyexhibitedmeticulous,evenfastidiousoversight.Effectivelawenforcementandregu-latorycontrolmustbequalified,however,giventhatannualrepetitionofidenticalwarningsandsanctionthreatsrarelymaterializedintoenforcementmeasures.Whileofficialinstructionscon-sistentlyemphasizedthetheoreticallyandlegally“precariousandrevocable”characterofbeachbusinesses,theseopen-airbeachfrontvenueshad,infact,establishedthemselvesfirmlyintheco-astallandscape.Overall,beachoperatorshaveeffectivelyprevailed.Byassertingtheirpresence—frequentlyextendingtoorbeyondthelegalboundariesoftheirconcessions—theyhavedurablytransformedthesocialusesofthebeach,redirectingthemtowardacommerciallogic.ConclusionWhoownsthebeach?ByshowinghowtheconcessionapparatustookshapeinanemblematicspotoftheFrenchRiviera,thisarticleprovidesonesituatedanswertothissomewhatunexpectedyetrecurringquestion(e.g.,Ritchie,2021,p.224-243).Theconcessionapparatusservesasalegalme-ansof“privatizingtheMediterraneancoastline”(Selwyn,2004)withoutformalprivatization.Now,letusoutlinethetwomaineffectsproducedbythisapparatus.First,ithasresultedinsubstantialprofitsforprivateoperatorswhileprovidingastablerevenuestreamforlocalandnationalpublicauthorities.Bythelate2010s,thecombinedannualturnoverofPampelonne’s25to30beaches-tablishments—dependingontheyear—wasestimatedat€30–40million,generating€8million.Second,annuallyintaxesandfees,including€1to1.5millioninmunicipalconcessionpaymentscommercialenterpriseshavedivideddistinctsocialgroups,separatingordinarybeachgoersacces-singtheshorelineforfreeleisurefromanaffluentclientele,leavingthe“spaceofconsumption”toshifttowardsthe“consumptionofspace”(Lefebvre,1991,p.352-353)indistinctivebeachestablish-ments.Bythe1980s,Pampelonnehadbecome(in)famouslyknownasajet-setbeach.27notrespassingFromthenon,socialstratificationwouldmanifestspatiallyinadistinctiveterritorialdivisionacrossthesandyshoreline,evenintheabsenceofsigns.Vertically,theconcessionsystemhassymbolicallydeterritorializedthebeach,precipitatingaquasi-insularizationthathasestablishedPampelonneasarecognizedtoponyminitsownright,seeminglyreleasedfromitsadministrativeconnectiontothetownofRamatuelleitbelongsto.Horizontally,actingasalandregistryorcadastralsystem,theconcessionapparatushaspartitionedthecoastalspaceintose-parateandcompetitiveplots,inadistributionsupposedlydesignedtoaccommodateallsocialgroupsandtastes.Inpractice,however,inequalitieshavedeepenedinPampelonne.Membersoftheworkingclassarethereasemployees,notcustomers,whileevenmiddle-classvacationersareputoffbytheyouhavegottouse(andpayphysicalandsymbolicbarrierscreatedbytheconcessionapparatus.AsAndréGorz(1980,p.87)for)theseindustrialpointedoutinthemid-1975,“ifyouwanttostretchoutinthesun,usersfacilities.Enjoymentofthesun,thebeach,andrelaxationismadedependentonrentingthem.Capitalismhasaccomplishedthefeatofcapitalizingpicturesquespotsandsce-nery—thatis,ithastransformedthemintocapital—ofmanaging,operatingandrentingthemout28.”toindustrializethemeansofaccessanduseofthesesites.Todothis,alltheyhadtodowasRapportdeprésentationduSCOTduGolfedeSaint-Tropez2728p.106.ItalicsarefromGorzhimself.Earlierinthebook,hecondemnsthe“luxuryoftheprivatebeach”asopposedtothe“democ-ratizationofaccesstothebeaches”(.,p.69).ibid,t.1(Lediagnosticterritorial),n°2019/10/02-06,October2019,15ThemakingofthecoastalconcessionapparatustedmarketDespitetheaforementionedconflicts,thesituationdidnotfullyfallundertheconceptofacontes-perseprivatebeaches,atleastnotduringtheperiodunderstudy.Thediscoursejustifyingbeachestablish-mentsemphasizedeconomicdevelopmentratherthanthecommongoodorgeneralinterest.Ascommercialdesignationsuggests,thesevenueswerelargelyperceivedastheenterprises,notaspublicservicefacilities.Criticalvoiceswerenotsomuchopposedtomarketmechanisms—occasionallycriticizedyetrarelycondemnedasinherentlyimmoral—butra-thertotheexclusiveappropriationofcoastalareas,whichrestrictedpublicaccessanduse,alongwiththesoaringpricesthatmadebeachrestaurantsunaffordabletomuchofthepopulation.Whi-lethebeachunderwentcommodification,thecoremoraldisputecenteredlessonmarketizationsocialerosionthanontheexclusionaryeffectsofbeachgrabbingandcoastalenclosure.pureInthisregard,thecaseofPampelonneBeachexemplifiesadualprocesswheregoeshandinhandwithnaturalerosion.Overthelastdecades,Pampelonnehasindeednotbeenexempt—albeittoamoderateddegree—fromcoastalsqueeze.Thissituationcallsforasocio-e-cologicalapproachthatacknowledgeshownaturalprocesses—suchascoastalerosionandsea--levelrise—challengethestaticlogicoftheconcessionapparatus,soastoconsiderthebeachasacriticalsiteforobservinghow“nature”and“society”constituteoneanother.Theshorelineresiststhepassive,malleableimageprojectedbytheconcessionapparatus.Exacerbatedbyrampantarti-causingthedisappearanceofsmallbeachesintheVarregionficialization,coastalsqueezeisunderminingthefoundationsoftheseasideorderbasedonbeachconcessions,even.dejure29sqInotherwords,whiletheconcessionhasmadethebeachavailableordisposableinsubjectingittocommercialappropriationagainstthe“unavailability”thatcharacterizespublicthingsdefacto.),itsdynamicenvironmentalcontextnowforcefullydemonstratesa(Thomas,2002,p.1435unavailability.Intheearlytwenty-firstcentury,this“returnoftheuncontrollable”(Rosa,),wherebynaturalprocessesmanifestthemselvesforcefully,hasservedasastarkremin-2020dertopolicymakersandconcessionairesalikethatthebeachisalivingenvironment,notmerelyatobeexploited.ObservationsofcoastalsqueezeatPampelonneBeachpromptedtoadoptionofanewcoastaldevelopmentplanthatnowlimitsthespaceoccupiedbyseasideesta-blishmentsontheforeshore.resourceFundingThisresearchwassupportedbytheInstitutUniversitairedeFrance(IUF)andTheFondationMai-sonsdesSciencesdel’Homme(FMSH)AcknowledgementsTheauthorswouldliketothankarchivistCarolineMartinforherassistance.ArchivalSourcesNA=NationalArchives,Pierrefitte.DAV=DepartmentalArchivesofVar,Draguignan.CAR=Commu-nalArchives,Ramatuelle.FIA=FrenchInstituteofArchitecture,Paris.PA=PrivateArchives.29AsexplainedintheEnglishversion’sforeword,theGermanoriginaltitlecouldhavebeentranslatedas“unavailability”or“unpredictability”.Theissueatstakeis“modernity’sincessantdesiretomaketheworldengineerable,predictable,avail-able,accessible,disposable(i.e.)inallitsaspects”(p.viii).verfügbar16IsabelleBruno;GrégorySalleDeliberationsoftheMunicipalCouncilofRamatuelle,sessionofFebruary20th,1964[CAR2W2].thDeliberationsofthemunicipalcouncilofRamatuelle,sessionsofOctober17,1929andApril27,1930[CAR,2W1D10].thDrafttextestablishingthestatusoftheprofessionofoperatorsofbathingestablishments”,December919920097/65].,1960[NAthExtractfromthenoteoftheDirectorGeneralofTaxes(Domainservice)totheMinisterofPublicWorks,TransportandstTourismabouttherentaloftherighttoexploitbeaches,July21,1958[NA19920097/65].thLetteraddressedtothemayorofRamatuelle,August27,1967[CAR6W23/2].LetteraddressedtothemayorofRamatuelle,October1965[CAR–n.c.].Lettersfrombeachoperators,December1964andFebruary1966[CAR6W23/2].PontsetChausséesLetterfromtheMinisterofPublicWorks,PostsandTelegraphstotheChiefEngineerthedepartmentofcivilengineering[,1912[NA,19920097/65].],December30ththLetterfromtheprefectofVartothemayorofGassin,December11,1925.[DAV,4S7-11].thLetterfromthePréfetofVar,T.Barnier,tothemayorsoftheVarcoast,February27,1922.[FIA,343AA4/6].MinistryofEquipmentandHousing(DirectorateofMaritimePortsandWaterways),theMinistryofEconomyandFi-nance(GeneralDirectorateofTaxes,DepartmentofLandandDomainAffairs),toPrefects,“Subject:concessionofastnaturalbeachtoamunicipality,toasyndicateofmunicipalitiesortoadepartment”,June1,1972[CAR2W2].stMunicipalCouncilofRamatuelle,sessionsofJanuary21th,1966andJanuary12th,1967[CAR2W2].thMunicipalcouncilofRamatuelle,ExtraordinarysessiononMarch192W1D10].,1922,andsessionofOctober17,1929[CAR,Notesurl’adjudicationdesplages,n.d.[1956][NA19920097/65].Notesurlesproblèmesposésparleslocationsetconcessionsdeplages,n.d.[1959][NA19920097/65].Programmedel’aménagementdelapresqu’îletropézienne,DepartmentofVar,n.d.[1931][CAR,3Dseries].Mayorforthirtyyears(1971-2001)RaphaëlAlbert,[provisionaltitle],unpublishedtypescript[PA].Syndicateofcoastalmunicipalitiesfortheprotection,developmentandenhancementoftheVarCôted’Azur,Bulletinno.1,Draguignan,Olivier-JoulianPrint.,1923.[FIA,343AA4/6].OfficialDocumentsAndLegislationstCircularn.72-86ofJune1nicipalitiesortoadepartment(“Specifications”).Internaldocument,restrictedaccess.,1972relatingtotheconcessionofnaturalbeachestoamunicipality,toasyndicateofmu-RapportdeprésentationduSCOTduGolfedeSaint-Tropez,t.1(Lediagnosticterritorial),n.2019/10/02-06,October2019.Availableon:https://www.golfe-sainttropez.fr/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2022/11/RP_TOME1_Diagnostic_Territorial_Approuv.pdf.Accessedon:30nov.2025.NewspaperAndPeriodicalArticlesAccessedvia:Dossierdepresse«Domainepublic»(t.1,n.117,1956-2005),Fondationnationaledessciencespoliti-ques(FNSP),Paris.LesÉchosthDeuxobjectifspourlacommissiond’aménagementdulittoral,,June8,1967.LeMondethLa‘guerredesplages’àSaint-Raphaël,,August27Témoignagechrétien,1965.LEGOFF,J.-P.,Laguerredesplagesdoitêtregagnée,LeMonderdLesplagistesdemandentunstatut,,October23,1972.Combatnd,September2,1965.thPlagesprivées:nouvelleréglementationmiseaupointcethiver,LeMonde,July30,1971.thSIMON,J.-F.,Destouristesmanifestentcontrel’accaparementdesplages,,August19,1965.17ThemakingofthecoastalconcessionapparatusReferencesWhatisanApparatus?AGAMBEN,Giorgio.Stanford:StanfordUP,2009.80p.ActesdelarechercheensciencessocialesBIDET,Jennifer;DEVIENNE,Elsa.BeachesofContention.2017.Availableon:https://doi.org/10.3917/arss.218.0004.Accessedon:15nov.2025.Côted’Azur:,n.218,v.3,p.4-9,BLUME,Mary.pologyBOURDIEU,Pierre;LAMAISONPierre.FromRulestoStrategies.AnInterviewwithPierreBourdieu.InventingtheFrenchRiviera.London:Thames&Hudson,1992.208p.,v.1,n.1,p.110-120,1986.Availableon:https://www.jstor.org/stable/656327.Accessedon:30mar.2025.AnInvitationtoReflexiveSociologyCulturalAnthro-BOURDIEU,Pierre;WACQUANT,Loïc..Cambridge:PolityPress,1992.ActesdelarechercheensciencessocialesBRUNO,Isabelle;SALLE,Grégory.Étatnetouchepasàmonmatelas!Conflitsd’usageetluttesd’appropriationsurla,n.218,v.3p.26-45,2017.Availableon:https://doi.plagedePampelonne.org/10.3917/arss.218.0026.Accessedon:15nov.2025.Norois,n.238-239,p.43-CHABERT,Jean-Baptiste.L’actionfoncière:uneressourcepourdesmobilisationsriveraines.La58,2016.Availableon:https://journals.openedition.org/norois/pdf/5855.Accessedon:15nov.2025.Méditerranéeauprismedesrivages.Menaces,protections,aménagementsenMéditerranéeoccidentale(XVIe-CHAUCHARD,Cécile.Entremenacecommercialeetprotectionjuridique,laplagedePampelonne.In:BROGINI,Anne.-XXIesiècles)me-des-rivages--9782356760371-page-311?site_lang=fr.Accessedon:15nov.2025..Saint-Deni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icadoaparatodeconcessõesnapraiadePampelonne(décadasde1920a1970),localemblemáticodaRivieraFrancesa.Combaseempesquisaarquivís-tica,analisamoscomoumacostaantesnãoregu-lamentadafoigradualmentetransformadaemumespaçorecreativocomercializado(àsvezescontes-tado)pormeiodenegociaçõesentreautoridadesestatais,atoreslocaisegestoresprivados.EmboraasconcessõesemitidaspeloEstadonãoconfiramdireitosdepropriedadeprivada,autorizamopera-dorescomerciaisaexplorartemporariamenteseg-mentosdapraiamedianteainstalaçãodeinfraes-truturasfísicasnaareia.Operandonainterseçãoentrepropriedadepúblicaeexploraçãoprivada,esseaparatocriouumaquase-privatização,seg-mentandoosfrequentadoresentreumaclientelaabastadaeusuárioscomuns,aomesmotempoemquegeravalucrossubstanciaisparaoperadoresprivadoseautoridadespúblicas.OcasodePam-pelonne,queilustraasconsequênciasespaciaisesociaisdocapitalismocosteiro,destacacomoanaturezarecreativaéconstruídacomoumamer-cadoria,aprofundandodesigualdadessociaiseecológicasnolitoralmediterrâneo.Palavras-chave:Praia;Concessão;MeioAmbiente;Desigualdade;Litoral.Esteartículoexaminalaemergenciasociohis-tóricadelaparatodeconcesionesenlaplayadePampelonne(décadasde1920a1970),unsitioemblemáticodelaRivierafrancesa.Apartirdeunainvestigaciónarchivística,analizamoscómounacostaantesnoreguladasetransformógradu-almenteenunespaciorecreativocomercializado(enocasiones,disputado)mediantenegociacionesentreautoridadesestatales,actoreslocalesyges-toresprivados.AunquelasconcesionesotorgadasporelEstadonoconfierenderechosdepropiedadprivada,autorizanalosoperadorescomercialesaexplotartemporalmentesegmentosdelaplayamediantelainstalacióndeinfraestructurasfísicasenlaarena.Operandoenlaencrucijadaentrelapropiedadpúblicaylaexplotaciónprivada,esteaparatogeneróunacuasi-privatización,segmen-tandoalosusuariosentreunaclientelaadineradaylosbañistascomunes,altiempoquegenerabagananciassustancialesparaoperadoresprivadosyautoridadespúblicas.ElcasodePampelonne,queilustralasconsecuenciasespacialesysocialesdelcapitalismocostero,subrayacómolanaturale-zarecreativaseconstruyecomounamercancía,yasíprofundizalasdesigualdadessocialesyecoló-gicasenlacostamediterránea.Palabrasclave:Playa;Concesión;MedioAmbiente;Desigualdad;Litoral.TimelineoftheManuscriptReceived:May2025FirstReview:July2025SecondReview:June2025ThirdReview:June2025AcceptedforPublication:September2025Authorrevision:September2025Grammar,SpellingandABNTreview:October2025Authorrevision:November2025PublishedonDecember202520IsabelleBruno;GrégorySalle